High prevalence of myopia in university students: A concern for the future Original research study
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Published:
Feb 20, 2026
Keywords:
Myopia, Hyperopis, Astigmatism, Prevalence, Young population
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Abstract
Purpose: To determine the prevalence of refractive errors in university students.
Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2017. The samples were selected through multi-stage cluster sampling. After selecting the participants and obtaining informed consent from them, examinations including the measurement of uncorrected and corrected visual acuity, autorefractometry and retinoscopy in non-cycloplegic conditions, and subjective refraction.
Results: Of 854 selected students, 726 participated in the study, of whom 51.7% (n = 375) were female. Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism was seen in 41.87% (38.28–45.47%), 2.75% (1.56–3.95%), and 45.32% (41.69–48.95%) of the students, respectively. Myopia with a spherical equivalent of more than 6 D was detected in 1.5% of the students (n = 11). Age and sex did not have a significant correlation with myopia and hyperopia in this age group. The prevalence of astigmatism was significantly higher in male students (OR = 1.36; 1.02–1.83). The prevalence of WTR, ATR, and oblique astigmatism was 23.4%, 18.5%, and 3.4%, respectively. In total, 60.33% (56.76– 63.90%) of the students were ametropic.
Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive errors, especially myopia, is markedly high in university students. Considering near-work activities in this population, refractive errors, especially myopia, should be corrected in students.
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Hashemi H, Ostadimoghaddam H, Ahmad MA, Azad Shahraki F, Moravej R, Riazifar A, Yekta A, Khabazkhoob M. High prevalence of myopia in university students: A concern for the future. Ophthatherapy [Internet]. 2026Feb.20 [cited 2026May30];12(4). Available from: https://www.journalsmededu.pl/index.php/ophthatherapy/article/view/3196
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Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
References
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42. Abuallut II, Alhulaibi AA, Alyamani AA et al. Prevalence of refractive errors and its associated risk factors among medical students of Jazan University, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2020; 27(4): 210-7.
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3. Bhutia KL, Bhutia SC, Gupta N et al. Prevalence of refractive errors among the school-going children in East Sikkim. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021; 69(8): 2018-20.
4. Alipour F, Mohammadzadeh M, Jafari F et al. Distribution and prevalence of refractive error in Iranian adult population results of the PERSIAN eye cohort study PECS. Sci Rep. 2024; 14(1): 14515.
5. Ismail LA, Sukumaran S. Prevalence of refractive errors among school children in Wangsa Maju, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Optom. 2022; 3(3): 106-12.
6. Hashemi A, Khabazkhoob M, Hashemi H. High prevalence of refractive errors in an elderly population; a public health issue. BMC Ophthalmol. 2023; 23(1): 38.
7. Al-Namaeh M. Common causes of visual impairment in the elderly. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2021; 10(4): 191-200.
8. Furtado JM, Berezovsky A, Ferraz NN et al. Prevalence and Causes of Visual Impairment and Blindness in Adults Aged 45 Years and Older from Parintins: The Brazilian Amazon Region Eye Survey. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2019; 26(5): 345-54.
9. Ashrafi E, Mohammadi SF, Katibeh M et al. Rapid Assessment of Avoidable Blindness in Kurdistan, Iran. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2019; 14(2): 179-84.
10. Iribarren R, Hashemi H, Khabazkhoob M et al. Hyperopia and Lens Power in an Adult Population: The Shahroud Eye Study. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2015; 10(4): 400-7.
11. Khalaj M, Barikani A, Ghasemi H. Eye disorders in old people. Global Journal of Health Science. 2013; 5(1): 79.
12. Wang M, Cui J, Shan G et al. Prevalence and risk factors of refractive error: a cross-sectional Study in Han and Yi adults in Yunnan, China. BMC Ophthalmol. 2019; 19(1): 33.
13. Schiefer U, Kraus C, Baumbach P et al. Refractive errors: epidemiology, effects and treatment options. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 2016; 113(41): 693.
14. Behboudi H, Rajavi Z, Sabbaghi H et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in population aged 50 years and over: The Gilan eye study. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2024; 34(2): 449-60.
15. Nemeth J, Daiki T, Dankovics G et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in Hungary reveals three-fold increase in myopia. Int J Ophthalmol. 2022; 15(7): 1174-9.
16. Carneiro VLA, González-Méijome JM. Prevalence of refractive error in Portugal – A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Optom. 2023; 16(3): 182-8.
17. Chin MP, Siong KH, Chan KH et al. Prevalence of visual impairment and refractive errors among different ethnic groups in schoolchildren in Turpan, China. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2015; 35(3): 263-70.
18. He J, Lu L, He X et al. The relationship between crystalline lens power and refractive error in older Chinese adults: the Shanghai Eye Study. PLoS One. 2017; 12(1): e0170030.
19. Williams KM, Verhoeven VJ, Cumberland P et al. Prevalence of refractive error in Europe: the European Eye Epidemiology (E(3)) Consortium. Eur J Epidemiol. 2015; 30(4): 305-15.
20. Khoshhal F, Hashemi H, Hooshmand E et al. The prevalence of refractive errors in the Middle East: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Ophthalmol. 2020; 40(6): 1571-86.
21. Mohammadi S, Farzadfar F, Pour PM et al. Prevalence and burden of refractive errors at national and sub-national levels in Iran. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2022; 17(1): 78.
22. Cheng F, Shan L, Song W et al. Prevalence and risk factor for refractive error in rural Chinese adults in Kailu, Inner Mongolia. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2021; 41(1): 13-20.
23. Rajabpour M, Kangari H, Pesudovs K et al. Refractive error and vision related quality of life. BMC Ophthalmol. 2024; 24(1): 83.
24. Magakwe TS, Hansraj R, Xulu-Kasaba ZN. The impact of uncorrected refractive error and visual impairment on the quality of life amongst school-going children in Sekhukhune district (Limpopo), South Africa. African Vision and Eye Health. 2022; 81(1): 7.
25. Kandel H, Khadka J, Goggin M et al. Impact of refractive error on quality of life: a qualitative study. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2017; 45(7): 677-88.
26. Joseph L. Refractive Errors and Academic Achievements of Primary School Children. Nurs J India. 2014; 105(6): 269-71.
27. Harrabi H, Aubin MJ, Zunzunegui MV et al. Visual difficulty and employment status in the world. PLoS One. 2014; 9(2): e88306.
28. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Nabovati P et al. The prevalence of tropia, phoria and their types in a student population in Iran. Strabismus. 2020; 28(1): 35-41.
29. Alqudah AA, Bauer AJ, Aleshawi A. Refractive errors among medical students in Jordan: prevalence, types and possible risk factors. Future Science OA. 2023; 9(2): FSO839.
30. Almudhaiyan T, Alhamzah A, AlShareef M et al. The prevalence of refractive errors among Saudi adults in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2020; 34(1): 30-4.
31. Vitale S, Ellwein L, Cotch MF et al. Prevalence of refractive error in the United States, 1999-2004. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008; 126(8): 1111-9.
32. Kinge B, Midelfart A, Jacobsen G. Refractive errors among young adults and university students in Norway. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 1998; 76(6): 692-5.
33. Grzybowski A, Kanclerz P, Tsubota K et al. A review on the epidemiology of myopia in school children worldwide. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020; 20(1): 27.
34. Rim TH, Kim SH, Lim KH et al. Refractive Errors in Koreans: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2012. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2016; 30(3): 214-24.
35. Jobke S, Kasten E, Vorwerk C. The prevalence rates of refractive errors among children, adolescents, and adults in Germany. Clin Ophthalmol. 2008; 2(3): 601-7.
36. Koh V, Yang A, Saw SM et al. Differences in prevalence of refractive errors in young Asian males in Singapore between 1996–1997 and 2009–2010. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2014; 21(4): 247-55.
37. Hashemi H, Rezvan F, Ostadimoghaddam H et al. High prevalence of refractive errors in a rural population: ‘Nooravaran Salamat’ Mobile Eye Clinic experience. Clin Exp Ophthal. 2013; 41(7): 635-43.
38. Munoli K, Harpanalli S, Holkar S et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors Among Medical Students of Raichur Institute of Medical Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India. Cureus. 2024; 16(4): e58915.
39. Shneor E, Doron R, Ostrin LA et al. The prevalence of refractive errors in college students in Israel. J Optom. 2022; 15(4): 284-92.
40. Teran E, Ramirez-Jaime R, Martinez-Gaytan C et al. Refractive Error of Students (15- to 18-year-olds) in Northwest Mexico. Optom Vis Sci. 2021; 98(10): 1127-31.
41. Bahakim NO, Geddawy AI, Sharma K et al. Visual status among undergraduate students: Findings from an emerging university in Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021; 28(8): 4683-90.
42. Abuallut II, Alhulaibi AA, Alyamani AA et al. Prevalence of refractive errors and its associated risk factors among medical students of Jazan University, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2020; 27(4): 210-7.
43. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Ali B et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors in Iranian University Students in Kazerun. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2020; 32(1): 75-81.
44. Parrey MUR, Elmorsy E. Prevalence and pattern of refractive errors among Saudi adults. Pak J Med Sci. 2019; 35(2): 394.
45. Alsaif BA, Aljindan MY, Alrammah HM et al. Refractive errors among Saudi college students and associated risk factors. Clin Ophthalmol. 2019; 13: 437-43.
46. Wei S, Sun Y, Li S et al. Refractive Errors in University Students in Central China: The Anyang University Students Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018; 59(11): 4691-700.
47. Al-Rashidi SH, Albahouth AA, Althwini WA et al. Prevalence refractive errors among Medical Students of Qassim University, Saudi Arabia: cross-sectional descriptive study. Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2018; 6(5): 940.
48. Hagen LA, Gjelle JVB, Arnegard S et al. Prevalence and Possible Factors of Myopia in Norwegian Adolescents. Sci Rep. 2018; 8(1): 13479.
49. Shi XY, Ke YF, Jin N et al. The prevalence of vision impairment and refractive error in 3654 first year students at Tianjin Medical University. Int J Ophthalmol. 2018; 11(10): 1698.
50. Alsaqr A, Abu Sharha A, Fagehi R et al. The visual status of adolescents in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: a population study. Clin Ophthalmol. 2018; 12: 965-72.
51. Onal S, Toker E, Akingol Z et al. Refractive errors of medical students in Turkey: one year follow-up of refraction and biometry. Optom Vis Sci. 2007; 84(3): 175-80.
52. Midelfart A, Kinge B, Midelfart S et al. [Prevalence of refractive errors in Norway]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2004; 124(1): 46-8.
53. Huang HM, Chang DST, Wu PC. The association between near work activities and myopia in children – a systematic review and meta- analysis. PloS One. 2015; 10(10): e0140419.
54. Li SM, Li SY, Kang MT et al. Near Work Related Parameters and Myopia in Chinese Children: the Anyang Childhood Eye Study. PLoS One. 2015; 10(8): e0134514.
55. Parssinen O, Lassila E, Kauppinen M. Associations of Children’s Close Reading Distance and Time Spent Indoors with Myopia, Based on Parental Questionnaire. Children (Basel). 2022; 9(5): 632.
56. Mirshahi A, Ponto KA, Hoehn R et al. Myopia and level of education: results from the Gutenberg Health Study. Ophthalmology. 2014; 121(10): 2047-52.
57. Ciuffreda KJ, Wallis DM. Myopes show increased susceptibility to nearwork aftereffects. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998; 39(10): 1797-803.
58. Berntsen DA, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. Study of theories about myopia progression (STAMP) design and baseline data. Optom Vis Sci. 2010; 87(11): 823-32.
59. Monsálvez-Romín D, Esteve-Taboada JJ, Montés P et al. Global prevalence of hyperopia. Journal of Emmetropia: Journal of Cataract, Refractive and Corneal Surgery. 2015; 6(2): 109-16.
60. Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Khabazkhoob M et al. The prevalence of refractive errors among schoolchildren in Dezful, Iran. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007; 91(3): 287-92.
61. Hashemi H, Fotouhi A, Mohammad K. The age- and gender-specific prevalences of refractive errors in Tehran: the Tehran Eye Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004; 11(3): 213-25.
62. Narayanasamy S, Vincent SJ, Sampson GP et al. Simulated astigmatism impairs academic-related performance in children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2015; 35(1): 8-18.
63. Gupta A, Casson RJ, Newland HS et al. Prevalence of refractive error in rural Myanmar: the Meiktila Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2008; 115(1): 26-32.
64. Saw SM, Gazzard G, Koh D et al. Prevalence rates of refractive errors in Sumatra, Indonesia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002; 43(10): 3174-80.
65. Read SA, Collins MJ, Carney LG. A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis. Clin Exp Optom. 2007; 90(1): 5-19.
66. Attebo K, Ivers RQ, Mitchell P. Refractive errors in an older population: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106(6): 1066-72.
67. Wu SY, Nemesure B, Leske MC. Refractive errors in a black adult population: the Barbados Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999; 40(10): 2179-84.
68. Wajuihian SO, Mashige KP. Gender and age distribution of refractive errors in an optometric clinical population. J Optom. 2021; 14(4): 315-27.
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