High prevalence of myopia in university students: A concern for the future Artykuł oryginalny
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Opublikowane:
lut 20, 2026
Słowa kluczowe:
myopia, hyperopis, astigmatism, prevalence, young population
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Abstrakt
Purpose: To determine the prevalence of refractive errors in university students.
Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2017. The samples were selected through multi-stage cluster sampling. After selecting the participants and obtaining informed consent from them, examinations including the measurement of uncorrected and corrected visual acuity, autorefractometry and retinoscopy in non-cycloplegic conditions, and subjective refraction.
Results: Of 854 selected students, 726 participated in the study, of whom 51.7% (n = 375) were female. Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism was seen in 41.87% (38.28–45.47%), 2.75% (1.56–3.95%), and 45.32% (41.69–48.95%) of the students, respectively. Myopia with a spherical equivalent of more than 6 D was detected in 1.5% of the students (n = 11). Age and sex did not have a significant correlation with myopia and hyperopia in this age group. The prevalence of astigmatism was significantly higher in male students (OR = 1.36; 1.02–1.83). The prevalence of WTR, ATR, and oblique astigmatism was 23.4%, 18.5%, and 3.4%, respectively. In total, 60.33% (56.76– 63.90%) of the students were ametropic.
Conclusion: The prevalence of refractive errors, especially myopia, is markedly high in university students. Considering near-work activities in this population, refractive errors, especially myopia, should be corrected in students.
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Hashemi H, Ostadimoghaddam H, Ahmad MA, Azad Shahraki F, Moravej R, Riazifar A, Yekta A, Khabazkhoob M. High prevalence of myopia in university students: A concern for the future. Ophthatherapy [Internet]. 20 luty 2026 [cytowane 30 maj 2026];12(4). Dostępne na: https://www.journalsmededu.pl/index.php/ophthatherapy/article/view/3196
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Dział
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Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
Copyright: Medical Education sp. z o.o. License allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
Bibliografia
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7. Al-Namaeh M. Common causes of visual impairment in the elderly. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2021; 10(4): 191-200.
8. Furtado JM, Berezovsky A, Ferraz NN et al. Prevalence and Causes of Visual Impairment and Blindness in Adults Aged 45 Years and Older from Parintins: The Brazilian Amazon Region Eye Survey. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2019; 26(5): 345-54.
9. Ashrafi E, Mohammadi SF, Katibeh M et al. Rapid Assessment of Avoidable Blindness in Kurdistan, Iran. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2019; 14(2): 179-84.
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36. Koh V, Yang A, Saw SM et al. Differences in prevalence of refractive errors in young Asian males in Singapore between 1996–1997 and 2009–2010. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2014; 21(4): 247-55.
37. Hashemi H, Rezvan F, Ostadimoghaddam H et al. High prevalence of refractive errors in a rural population: ‘Nooravaran Salamat’ Mobile Eye Clinic experience. Clin Exp Ophthal. 2013; 41(7): 635-43.
38. Munoli K, Harpanalli S, Holkar S et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors Among Medical Students of Raichur Institute of Medical Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India. Cureus. 2024; 16(4): e58915.
39. Shneor E, Doron R, Ostrin LA et al. The prevalence of refractive errors in college students in Israel. J Optom. 2022; 15(4): 284-92.
40. Teran E, Ramirez-Jaime R, Martinez-Gaytan C et al. Refractive Error of Students (15- to 18-year-olds) in Northwest Mexico. Optom Vis Sci. 2021; 98(10): 1127-31.
41. Bahakim NO, Geddawy AI, Sharma K et al. Visual status among undergraduate students: Findings from an emerging university in Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021; 28(8): 4683-90.
42. Abuallut II, Alhulaibi AA, Alyamani AA et al. Prevalence of refractive errors and its associated risk factors among medical students of Jazan University, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2020; 27(4): 210-7.
43. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Ali B et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors in Iranian University Students in Kazerun. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2020; 32(1): 75-81.
44. Parrey MUR, Elmorsy E. Prevalence and pattern of refractive errors among Saudi adults. Pak J Med Sci. 2019; 35(2): 394.
45. Alsaif BA, Aljindan MY, Alrammah HM et al. Refractive errors among Saudi college students and associated risk factors. Clin Ophthalmol. 2019; 13: 437-43.
46. Wei S, Sun Y, Li S et al. Refractive Errors in University Students in Central China: The Anyang University Students Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018; 59(11): 4691-700.
47. Al-Rashidi SH, Albahouth AA, Althwini WA et al. Prevalence refractive errors among Medical Students of Qassim University, Saudi Arabia: cross-sectional descriptive study. Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2018; 6(5): 940.
48. Hagen LA, Gjelle JVB, Arnegard S et al. Prevalence and Possible Factors of Myopia in Norwegian Adolescents. Sci Rep. 2018; 8(1): 13479.
49. Shi XY, Ke YF, Jin N et al. The prevalence of vision impairment and refractive error in 3654 first year students at Tianjin Medical University. Int J Ophthalmol. 2018; 11(10): 1698.
50. Alsaqr A, Abu Sharha A, Fagehi R et al. The visual status of adolescents in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: a population study. Clin Ophthalmol. 2018; 12: 965-72.
51. Onal S, Toker E, Akingol Z et al. Refractive errors of medical students in Turkey: one year follow-up of refraction and biometry. Optom Vis Sci. 2007; 84(3): 175-80.
52. Midelfart A, Kinge B, Midelfart S et al. [Prevalence of refractive errors in Norway]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2004; 124(1): 46-8.
53. Huang HM, Chang DST, Wu PC. The association between near work activities and myopia in children – a systematic review and meta- analysis. PloS One. 2015; 10(10): e0140419.
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55. Parssinen O, Lassila E, Kauppinen M. Associations of Children’s Close Reading Distance and Time Spent Indoors with Myopia, Based on Parental Questionnaire. Children (Basel). 2022; 9(5): 632.
56. Mirshahi A, Ponto KA, Hoehn R et al. Myopia and level of education: results from the Gutenberg Health Study. Ophthalmology. 2014; 121(10): 2047-52.
57. Ciuffreda KJ, Wallis DM. Myopes show increased susceptibility to nearwork aftereffects. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998; 39(10): 1797-803.
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61. Hashemi H, Fotouhi A, Mohammad K. The age- and gender-specific prevalences of refractive errors in Tehran: the Tehran Eye Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004; 11(3): 213-25.
62. Narayanasamy S, Vincent SJ, Sampson GP et al. Simulated astigmatism impairs academic-related performance in children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2015; 35(1): 8-18.
63. Gupta A, Casson RJ, Newland HS et al. Prevalence of refractive error in rural Myanmar: the Meiktila Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2008; 115(1): 26-32.
64. Saw SM, Gazzard G, Koh D et al. Prevalence rates of refractive errors in Sumatra, Indonesia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002; 43(10): 3174-80.
65. Read SA, Collins MJ, Carney LG. A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis. Clin Exp Optom. 2007; 90(1): 5-19.
66. Attebo K, Ivers RQ, Mitchell P. Refractive errors in an older population: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106(6): 1066-72.
67. Wu SY, Nemesure B, Leske MC. Refractive errors in a black adult population: the Barbados Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999; 40(10): 2179-84.
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2. Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease; Blindness GBD Vision Impairment Collaborators. Global estimates on the number of people blind or visually impaired by Uncorrected Refractive Error: a meta-analysis from 2000 to 2020. Eye (Lond). 2024; 38(11): 2083-101.
3. Bhutia KL, Bhutia SC, Gupta N et al. Prevalence of refractive errors among the school-going children in East Sikkim. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021; 69(8): 2018-20.
4. Alipour F, Mohammadzadeh M, Jafari F et al. Distribution and prevalence of refractive error in Iranian adult population results of the PERSIAN eye cohort study PECS. Sci Rep. 2024; 14(1): 14515.
5. Ismail LA, Sukumaran S. Prevalence of refractive errors among school children in Wangsa Maju, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Optom. 2022; 3(3): 106-12.
6. Hashemi A, Khabazkhoob M, Hashemi H. High prevalence of refractive errors in an elderly population; a public health issue. BMC Ophthalmol. 2023; 23(1): 38.
7. Al-Namaeh M. Common causes of visual impairment in the elderly. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2021; 10(4): 191-200.
8. Furtado JM, Berezovsky A, Ferraz NN et al. Prevalence and Causes of Visual Impairment and Blindness in Adults Aged 45 Years and Older from Parintins: The Brazilian Amazon Region Eye Survey. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2019; 26(5): 345-54.
9. Ashrafi E, Mohammadi SF, Katibeh M et al. Rapid Assessment of Avoidable Blindness in Kurdistan, Iran. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2019; 14(2): 179-84.
10. Iribarren R, Hashemi H, Khabazkhoob M et al. Hyperopia and Lens Power in an Adult Population: The Shahroud Eye Study. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2015; 10(4): 400-7.
11. Khalaj M, Barikani A, Ghasemi H. Eye disorders in old people. Global Journal of Health Science. 2013; 5(1): 79.
12. Wang M, Cui J, Shan G et al. Prevalence and risk factors of refractive error: a cross-sectional Study in Han and Yi adults in Yunnan, China. BMC Ophthalmol. 2019; 19(1): 33.
13. Schiefer U, Kraus C, Baumbach P et al. Refractive errors: epidemiology, effects and treatment options. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 2016; 113(41): 693.
14. Behboudi H, Rajavi Z, Sabbaghi H et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in population aged 50 years and over: The Gilan eye study. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2024; 34(2): 449-60.
15. Nemeth J, Daiki T, Dankovics G et al. Prevalence of refractive errors in Hungary reveals three-fold increase in myopia. Int J Ophthalmol. 2022; 15(7): 1174-9.
16. Carneiro VLA, González-Méijome JM. Prevalence of refractive error in Portugal – A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Optom. 2023; 16(3): 182-8.
17. Chin MP, Siong KH, Chan KH et al. Prevalence of visual impairment and refractive errors among different ethnic groups in schoolchildren in Turpan, China. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2015; 35(3): 263-70.
18. He J, Lu L, He X et al. The relationship between crystalline lens power and refractive error in older Chinese adults: the Shanghai Eye Study. PLoS One. 2017; 12(1): e0170030.
19. Williams KM, Verhoeven VJ, Cumberland P et al. Prevalence of refractive error in Europe: the European Eye Epidemiology (E(3)) Consortium. Eur J Epidemiol. 2015; 30(4): 305-15.
20. Khoshhal F, Hashemi H, Hooshmand E et al. The prevalence of refractive errors in the Middle East: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Ophthalmol. 2020; 40(6): 1571-86.
21. Mohammadi S, Farzadfar F, Pour PM et al. Prevalence and burden of refractive errors at national and sub-national levels in Iran. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2022; 17(1): 78.
22. Cheng F, Shan L, Song W et al. Prevalence and risk factor for refractive error in rural Chinese adults in Kailu, Inner Mongolia. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2021; 41(1): 13-20.
23. Rajabpour M, Kangari H, Pesudovs K et al. Refractive error and vision related quality of life. BMC Ophthalmol. 2024; 24(1): 83.
24. Magakwe TS, Hansraj R, Xulu-Kasaba ZN. The impact of uncorrected refractive error and visual impairment on the quality of life amongst school-going children in Sekhukhune district (Limpopo), South Africa. African Vision and Eye Health. 2022; 81(1): 7.
25. Kandel H, Khadka J, Goggin M et al. Impact of refractive error on quality of life: a qualitative study. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2017; 45(7): 677-88.
26. Joseph L. Refractive Errors and Academic Achievements of Primary School Children. Nurs J India. 2014; 105(6): 269-71.
27. Harrabi H, Aubin MJ, Zunzunegui MV et al. Visual difficulty and employment status in the world. PLoS One. 2014; 9(2): e88306.
28. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Nabovati P et al. The prevalence of tropia, phoria and their types in a student population in Iran. Strabismus. 2020; 28(1): 35-41.
29. Alqudah AA, Bauer AJ, Aleshawi A. Refractive errors among medical students in Jordan: prevalence, types and possible risk factors. Future Science OA. 2023; 9(2): FSO839.
30. Almudhaiyan T, Alhamzah A, AlShareef M et al. The prevalence of refractive errors among Saudi adults in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2020; 34(1): 30-4.
31. Vitale S, Ellwein L, Cotch MF et al. Prevalence of refractive error in the United States, 1999-2004. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008; 126(8): 1111-9.
32. Kinge B, Midelfart A, Jacobsen G. Refractive errors among young adults and university students in Norway. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 1998; 76(6): 692-5.
33. Grzybowski A, Kanclerz P, Tsubota K et al. A review on the epidemiology of myopia in school children worldwide. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020; 20(1): 27.
34. Rim TH, Kim SH, Lim KH et al. Refractive Errors in Koreans: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2012. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2016; 30(3): 214-24.
35. Jobke S, Kasten E, Vorwerk C. The prevalence rates of refractive errors among children, adolescents, and adults in Germany. Clin Ophthalmol. 2008; 2(3): 601-7.
36. Koh V, Yang A, Saw SM et al. Differences in prevalence of refractive errors in young Asian males in Singapore between 1996–1997 and 2009–2010. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2014; 21(4): 247-55.
37. Hashemi H, Rezvan F, Ostadimoghaddam H et al. High prevalence of refractive errors in a rural population: ‘Nooravaran Salamat’ Mobile Eye Clinic experience. Clin Exp Ophthal. 2013; 41(7): 635-43.
38. Munoli K, Harpanalli S, Holkar S et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors Among Medical Students of Raichur Institute of Medical Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India. Cureus. 2024; 16(4): e58915.
39. Shneor E, Doron R, Ostrin LA et al. The prevalence of refractive errors in college students in Israel. J Optom. 2022; 15(4): 284-92.
40. Teran E, Ramirez-Jaime R, Martinez-Gaytan C et al. Refractive Error of Students (15- to 18-year-olds) in Northwest Mexico. Optom Vis Sci. 2021; 98(10): 1127-31.
41. Bahakim NO, Geddawy AI, Sharma K et al. Visual status among undergraduate students: Findings from an emerging university in Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021; 28(8): 4683-90.
42. Abuallut II, Alhulaibi AA, Alyamani AA et al. Prevalence of refractive errors and its associated risk factors among medical students of Jazan University, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2020; 27(4): 210-7.
43. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Ali B et al. Prevalence of Refractive Errors in Iranian University Students in Kazerun. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2020; 32(1): 75-81.
44. Parrey MUR, Elmorsy E. Prevalence and pattern of refractive errors among Saudi adults. Pak J Med Sci. 2019; 35(2): 394.
45. Alsaif BA, Aljindan MY, Alrammah HM et al. Refractive errors among Saudi college students and associated risk factors. Clin Ophthalmol. 2019; 13: 437-43.
46. Wei S, Sun Y, Li S et al. Refractive Errors in University Students in Central China: The Anyang University Students Eye Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018; 59(11): 4691-700.
47. Al-Rashidi SH, Albahouth AA, Althwini WA et al. Prevalence refractive errors among Medical Students of Qassim University, Saudi Arabia: cross-sectional descriptive study. Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2018; 6(5): 940.
48. Hagen LA, Gjelle JVB, Arnegard S et al. Prevalence and Possible Factors of Myopia in Norwegian Adolescents. Sci Rep. 2018; 8(1): 13479.
49. Shi XY, Ke YF, Jin N et al. The prevalence of vision impairment and refractive error in 3654 first year students at Tianjin Medical University. Int J Ophthalmol. 2018; 11(10): 1698.
50. Alsaqr A, Abu Sharha A, Fagehi R et al. The visual status of adolescents in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: a population study. Clin Ophthalmol. 2018; 12: 965-72.
51. Onal S, Toker E, Akingol Z et al. Refractive errors of medical students in Turkey: one year follow-up of refraction and biometry. Optom Vis Sci. 2007; 84(3): 175-80.
52. Midelfart A, Kinge B, Midelfart S et al. [Prevalence of refractive errors in Norway]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2004; 124(1): 46-8.
53. Huang HM, Chang DST, Wu PC. The association between near work activities and myopia in children – a systematic review and meta- analysis. PloS One. 2015; 10(10): e0140419.
54. Li SM, Li SY, Kang MT et al. Near Work Related Parameters and Myopia in Chinese Children: the Anyang Childhood Eye Study. PLoS One. 2015; 10(8): e0134514.
55. Parssinen O, Lassila E, Kauppinen M. Associations of Children’s Close Reading Distance and Time Spent Indoors with Myopia, Based on Parental Questionnaire. Children (Basel). 2022; 9(5): 632.
56. Mirshahi A, Ponto KA, Hoehn R et al. Myopia and level of education: results from the Gutenberg Health Study. Ophthalmology. 2014; 121(10): 2047-52.
57. Ciuffreda KJ, Wallis DM. Myopes show increased susceptibility to nearwork aftereffects. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998; 39(10): 1797-803.
58. Berntsen DA, Mutti DO, Zadnik K. Study of theories about myopia progression (STAMP) design and baseline data. Optom Vis Sci. 2010; 87(11): 823-32.
59. Monsálvez-Romín D, Esteve-Taboada JJ, Montés P et al. Global prevalence of hyperopia. Journal of Emmetropia: Journal of Cataract, Refractive and Corneal Surgery. 2015; 6(2): 109-16.
60. Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Khabazkhoob M et al. The prevalence of refractive errors among schoolchildren in Dezful, Iran. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007; 91(3): 287-92.
61. Hashemi H, Fotouhi A, Mohammad K. The age- and gender-specific prevalences of refractive errors in Tehran: the Tehran Eye Study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004; 11(3): 213-25.
62. Narayanasamy S, Vincent SJ, Sampson GP et al. Simulated astigmatism impairs academic-related performance in children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2015; 35(1): 8-18.
63. Gupta A, Casson RJ, Newland HS et al. Prevalence of refractive error in rural Myanmar: the Meiktila Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2008; 115(1): 26-32.
64. Saw SM, Gazzard G, Koh D et al. Prevalence rates of refractive errors in Sumatra, Indonesia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2002; 43(10): 3174-80.
65. Read SA, Collins MJ, Carney LG. A review of astigmatism and its possible genesis. Clin Exp Optom. 2007; 90(1): 5-19.
66. Attebo K, Ivers RQ, Mitchell P. Refractive errors in an older population: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 1999; 106(6): 1066-72.
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